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@ARTICLE{Mashkov:1046022,
      author       = {Mashkov, Oleksandr and Stroyuk, Oleksandr and Buerhop,
                      Claudia and Bind, Sanna and Clark, Dylan and Hauch, Jens and
                      Peters, Ian Marius},
      title        = {{N}ondestructive {D}etection of {W}ater {I}ngress in
                      {S}olar {M}odules {U}sing {N}ear‐{I}nfrared {A}bsorbance
                      {S}pectroscopy},
      journal      = {Solar RRL},
      volume       = {9},
      number       = {18},
      issn         = {2367-198X},
      address      = {Weinheim},
      publisher    = {Wiley-VCH},
      reportid     = {FZJ-2025-03662},
      pages        = {202500499},
      year         = {2025},
      abstract     = {Moisture ingress is a key factor in the degradation of
                      photovoltaic module components. This study employs
                      near-infrared absorption spectroscopy to nondestructively
                      quantify water uptake in backsheets and encapsulants, using
                      a water index derived from the 1910-1920 nm absorption band.
                      Measurements covered short-term dynamics during rainfall,
                      long-term outdoor monitoring, and spatial mapping.
                      Short-term monitoring showed a $14\%$ increase in the water
                      index within 20 min of observations. Five months of rooftop
                      measurements revealed strong sensitivity to humidity and
                      temperature: the index rose by $75\%$ as relative humidity
                      increased from $20\%$ to $50\%,$ and fell by $50\%$ as
                      temperature rose from 0°C to 40°C. Comparative field
                      campaigns in 2021 and 2023 showed material-specific trends:
                      under identical conditions, polyamide and
                      fluoropolymer-coated backsheets exhibited average water
                      index increases of $32\%,$ while polyvinylidene fluoride
                      showed only a $17\%$ increase. Changes in distribution shape
                      indicated differing moisture resistance among materials.
                      Gravimetric analysis confirmed material-dependent water
                      retention. Spatial mapping and immersion tests revealed
                      localized moisture accumulation and saturation-type
                      sorption, with uptake rates—derived via kinetic
                      fitting—ca. $27\%$ higher in field-aged modules than in
                      stored ones. These results establish near-infrared
                      spectroscopy as a scalable and noninvasive tool for
                      detecting moisture-related degradation in photovoltaic
                      modules.},
      cin          = {IET-2},
      ddc          = {600},
      cid          = {I:(DE-Juel1)IET-2-20140314},
      pnm          = {1214 - Modules, stability, performance and specific
                      applications (POF4-121)},
      pid          = {G:(DE-HGF)POF4-1214},
      typ          = {PUB:(DE-HGF)16},
      UT           = {WOS:001551808200001},
      doi          = {10.1002/solr.202500499},
      url          = {https://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/1046022},
}