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@ARTICLE{Werner:907340,
      author       = {Werner, Katharina A. and Poehlein, Anja and Schneider,
                      Dominik and El-Said, Khaliel and Wöhrmann, Michael and
                      Linkert, Isabel and Hübner, Tobias and Brüggemann, Nicolas
                      and Prost, Katharina and Daniel, Rolf and Grohmann,
                      Elisabeth},
      title        = {{T}hermophilic {C}omposting of {H}uman {F}eces:
                      {D}evelopment of {B}acterial {C}ommunity {C}omposition and
                      {A}ntimicrobial {R}esistance {G}ene {P}ool},
      journal      = {Frontiers in microbiology},
      volume       = {13},
      issn         = {1664-302X},
      address      = {Lausanne},
      publisher    = {Frontiers Media},
      reportid     = {FZJ-2022-01975},
      pages        = {824834},
      year         = {2022},
      abstract     = {In times of climate change, practicing sustainable,
                      climate-resilient, and productive agriculture is of
                      primordial importance. Compost from different resources, now
                      treated as wastes, could be one form of sustainable
                      fertilizer creating a resilience of agriculture to the
                      adverse effects of climate change. However, the safety of
                      the produced compost regarding human pathogens,
                      pharmaceuticals, and related resistance genes must be
                      considered. We have assessed the effect of thermophilic
                      composting of dry toilet contents, green cuttings, and
                      straw, with and without biochar, on fecal indicators, the
                      bacterial community, and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).
                      Mature compost samples were analyzed regarding fecal
                      indicator organisms, revealing low levels of Escherichia
                      coli that are in line with German regulations for
                      fertilizers. However, one finding of Salmonella spp.
                      exceeded the threshold value. Cultivation of bacteria from
                      the mature compost resulted in 200 isolates with $36.5\%$ of
                      biosafety level 2 (BSL-2) species. The majority is known as
                      opportunistic pathogens that likewise occur in different
                      environments. A quarter of the isolated BSL-2 strains
                      exhibited multiresistance to different classes of
                      antibiotics. Molecular analysis of total DNA before and
                      after composting revealed changes in bacterial community
                      composition and ARGs. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing
                      showed a decline of the two most abundant phyla
                      Proteobacteria (start: $36–48\%,$ end: $27–30\%)$ and
                      Firmicutes (start: $13–33\%,$ end: $12–16\%),$ whereas
                      the abundance of Chloroflexi, Gemmatimonadetes, and
                      Planctomycetes rose. Groups containing many human pathogens
                      decreased during composting, like Pseudomonadales, Bacilli
                      with Bacillus spp., or Staphylococcaceae and
                      Enterococcaceae. Gene-specific PCR showed a decline in the
                      number of detectable ARGs from 15 before to 8 after
                      composting. The results reveal the importance of
                      sufficiently high temperatures lasting for a sufficiently
                      long period during the thermophilic phase of composting for
                      reducing Salmonella to levels matching the criteria for
                      fertilizers. However, most severe human pathogens that were
                      targeted by isolation conditions were not detected.
                      Cultivation-independent analyses also indicated a decline in
                      bacterial orders comprising many pathogenic bacteria, as
                      well as a decrease in ARGs. In summary, thermophilic
                      composting could be a promising approach for producing
                      hygienically safe organic fertilizer from ecological
                      sanitation.},
      cin          = {IBG-3},
      ddc          = {570},
      cid          = {I:(DE-Juel1)IBG-3-20101118},
      pnm          = {2173 - Agro-biogeosystems: controls, feedbacks and impact
                      (POF4-217)},
      pid          = {G:(DE-HGF)POF4-2173},
      typ          = {PUB:(DE-HGF)16},
      UT           = {WOS:000768039900001},
      doi          = {10.3389/fmicb.2022.824834},
      url          = {https://juser.fz-juelich.de/record/907340},
}